A New Era in Land Administration Emerges

全球土地社区的挑战很清楚：在所有地方的所有人都有安全的土地权利。回应：土地管理中的一个新时代，一个人受到一股创新思维的浪潮，并加上可以在全球范围内应用的快速成熟，可扩展的方法。世界领先的私营公司，现代地理空间技术和新的专业心态，提供支持良好土地治188asia备用网址理的全球土地管理似乎是当前一代内的可行目标。本文描绘了新的思维方式和揭示为什么对全球土地权利未来安全性乐观态度有充分的理由。

Securing land rights has been a priority of the international development sector for decades. An often-quoted estimate indicates that 75% of the world’s people-to-land relationships are not documented and are outside the formal land administration domain. Meanwhile, populations and cities are growing and the pressure on land and natural resources is continuing to increase significantly. In the scramble for land it is often the poor who suffer most through dispossession, disputes and distrust. Appropriate administration of land normally marks the start of land-related conflict resolution and subsequent sustainable land use planning and natural resource management. This is crucial for people’s fundamental needs – including food security, housing and gender equality – and it is a human right.

Global developments

Land is a cross-cutting theme in the global development discourse. The UN Post-2015 Development Agenda includes consideration of the land issue across a wide range of objectives. The UN Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) guides the development of technology infrastructure to support land applications. The critical role of land and geospatial information management in support of global sustainable development is fully agreed at these levels. UN FAO has initiated and developed the ‘Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security’ (VGGTs). This comprehensive guide recommends that, where possible, states should ensure that the publicly held tenure rights are recorded together with tenure rights of indigenous peoples and the rights of the private sector in a single, or at least linked, land record system. Meanwhile, the World Bank has started assessment of good practices in the land sector through the Land Governance Assessment Framework (LGAF). The LGAF also provides tools for monitoring land governance as reforms are implemented. In addition, the UN-Habitat’s Continuum of Land Rights is now a widely accepted philosophy. This breakthrough in the perspective of land rights is implemented in current land tools, as well as in those under development by the Global Land Tool Network (GLTN). There is now clear interest among the key global stakeholders to solve the land problem within our generation. Implementation of the VGGTs and the Continuum of Land Rights is the driving force behind the new era of land administration.

Fit-for-purpose

国际测量师（图）联合会（图）认为需要超越公认的连续概念的倡导，并专注于将其嵌入真正的土地管理解决方案。在实践中，这转化并扩展到开发裁决和分界方法的连续性，是适当的测量技术和技术的连续性，等等。世界银行和无论促进适合临时土地管理办法，使适当的土地管理系统能够在相对较短的时间内建立在相对较短的时间内，以实惠的成本，并有机会在需要时升级。适当的方法建议使用“一般界限”来确定土地权利的划定。术语“一般边界”意味着尚未精确确定该位置，尽管划分通常与现场的物理特征有关。使用术语“视觉边界”可能会更好，因为这可能会更好地通过专业以外的利益相关者了解。

Visual boundaries

视觉界限很容易识别-resolution imagery in the field using participatory mapping approaches. In some countries, members of local communities have been successfully trained to become ‘grassroots surveyors’ within the space of a few weeks. The required human resources for collecting evidence from the field can be effectively organised and scaled up in this way. Based on briefings with neighbours and community members, the boundaries can be drawn on top of an image using a pen. Administrative data, such as names and personal IDs, can be linked on site during this process using preliminary reference identifiers for the spatial units. If boundaries are not visible either in the field or on the image, some simple field surveys may be needed for data completion. Finally, it is important to remember that the local community should be allowed to check and agree on the data, preferably on the same day. The community ‘sits around the map’ – a social process where people determine their own rights to land, guided by a grassroots surveyor and/or land professional.

数据采集

存在可在人力资源的目的，预算和可用性范围内采用的替代数据采集方法。这些范围从完全由总站和手持GPS的连续操作参考站（CORS）支持的准确测量范围到使用平面桌，胶带，链条和绳索。在仅接受高度准确的数据的情况下，无人机是在有前途的替代方案中。可以使用图像数据源，例如Google地图或Microsoft虚拟地球，并且可以同意在这些网站上包含高分辨率数据。管理数据收集可以是基于纸张的或数字的。所有这些数据采集选项都可以包括描述和标记数据质量元素的方法。质量标签对于争议案件的决策以及以后的质量改进至关重要。

Monumentation in the field should be avoided – unless people organise this themselves. Placing beacons is expensive, time-consuming and not efficient for achieving land administration with complete coverage. High-resolution imagery is normally of sufficient resolution to resolve conflicts about landholdings. The approach is not new and has been successfully used in several countries during the last few decades, such as in Cambodia, Ethiopia, Kenya and Rwanda for example (see Figures 1 and 2). The new aspect is that it is now scalable and can be applied in a massive way, including management of large volumes of data.

Automatic feature extraction

今天,自动概括技术公关ogressed to production environments, which would have been unimaginable some time ago. Similarly, automatic feature extraction from orthoimagery to support topographic mapping is now mature and can be used to assist spatial data collection for land administration purposes. This assumes a cloud-free satellite imagery composition. Images from fieldwork can be scanned and then compared with the results of automatic feature extraction from the imagery in a GIS environment. Automatic feature classification is not needed for this purpose. A pass generalisation can first be completed to obtain a set of vectors, which reasonably represents the visual boundary. Some interpretation and editing will be required as there may be topographic features inside a spatial unit of a right-holder. In the case of invisible boundaries on the imagery, some extra field observations may be needed. As a next step, the vectors obtained as a result of feature extraction can be reused in the spatial unit layer for land administration. The polygons can then be closed and corresponding spatial units automatically referenced to their final identifier. Administrative data collected by paper can be linked based on the preliminary identifier (see Figure 3).

Post-processing

一旦资源可用，可以通过后处理完成适当的地理造影和自动特征提取。从信息管理角度来看，这需要历史数据的版本控制和管理。来自字段的扫描图像必须被归档为源数据。如果不可用自动特征提取，则可以在扫描图像的顶部执行数字化，其中包含字段中绘制的边界。在任何情况下都需要版本管理，因为几何数据的质量改进是重要的第二步。在数据维护期间，基于精确的现场调查，可以偶尔组织此升级，例如GPS。一组区域中有一组新坐标，可以转换现有数据。系统的质量改善可能与土地巩固和城市计划的实施有关。

Software sources

GIS functionality is available to support all the data acquisition and data handling processes. An example of functionality for data collection in land administration is the Social Tenure Domain Model (STDM) provided as open source software by GLTN or FLOSS SOLA with support from FAO. STDM-compliant software is also available from industrial software providers. Meanwhile, many software vendors offer functionality for surveying and feature extraction.

Information management in the cloud

A number of initiatives are emerging that are based on the concept of democratising land rights through citizen empowerment and crowdsourcing, including Open Tenure in SOLA from UN-FAO, MapMyRights™ Foundation, the Rights and Resource Initiative, the Missing Maps Project and MappingforRights. These initiatives involve citizens and communities capturing their evidence of land rights on mobile devices and recording that evidence on a global platform that is accessible globally in the cloud. These are trust-based rather than legal-based systems, and increased security of tenure through societal evidence and global publicity might become the norm for rights not yet recognised by national governments. These innovative initiatives are embracing scalable, fit-for-purpose approaches, and many are initially working with indigenous communities. They hold the potential to accelerate global coverage, but the matter of how crowdsourced land rights can be formalised over time still needs to be resolved.

法律影响

The STDM and similar approaches such as FLOSS SOLA from FAO allow the inclusion of all people-to-land relations. This may include spatial units which are not legally occupied but are nevertheless legitimate according to the VGGTs. The converse may also be possible; land grabbing may result in titles, and land policies may require such situations to be repaired. This may imply a new and unconventional type of transaction: from freehold back to customary.

辩论新的时代

在职业中，就上述方法的关键要素有一项严肃的辩论。辩论是关于空间数据的质量;实质上，它是关于空间单位边界的位置准确性。然而，通常未提及数据质量问题，完整性（覆盖范围），逻辑一致性，拓扑一致性，位置准确度，时间准确性和主题精度。在许多国家，这些问题不会以综合方式考虑，主要是因为责任分布在不同的利益相关者群体中。这必须通过数据集成和数据协调以及集成众包数据来解决。

这与土地管理的需求非常适合，原则上不是根据高技术全国标准的准确性。迫切需要覆盖范围，以确保土地权利并管理土地的使用，以及避免土地抓住和强迫疏动，并确保社会不公正。这些适合的方法是快速，价格实惠，非常适合满足此要求。作为第二阶段，使用散发方法可以随时间提高位置精度。所有活动都需要良好管理质量相关的元数据。需要连续维护，并通过通过众所周知的地籍翻新，均质，和解和修订的众所周知的进程来与质量升级保持一致。

Further reading

• Enemark，Stgig，Bell，Keith，Lemmen，Christiaan和McLaren，Robin，Fit-Patient Land andmanation，International测量师联合会，无花果发表No.60,2014
• ISO 19152:2012 Geographic information -- Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), International Organization for Standardization, 2012
• 乌塔姆公园，哈利;范奥斯托莫斯，彼得，Zevenbergen，JAAP和Lemmen, Christiaan(2010). From LADM-STDM to a spatially enabled society: a vision for 2025. In: Proceedings of the World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty, 2010.
• UN Habitat, Handling land: innovative tools for land governance and secure tenure. UN Habitat/IIRR/GLTN, Nairobi, Kenya, 2012
• 粮农组织，国家粮食安全背景下的土地，渔业和森林负责任治理的自愿准则，罗马，意大利，2012年。